This post is an op-ed article I recently wrote for East Asia Forum. It can be accessed here.
As the effects of climate change in Asia become more obvious every year, carbon emission reduction policy in the region remains largely inadequate.
During the signing of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, most of Asia’s largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitting nations were considered developing countries and therefore not held to internationally binding agreements to reduce emissions. In the years since, several countries have considered voluntary GHG reduction targets but progress on the concrete mechanisms needed to achieve these goals has stalled in national legislatures. In lieu of national and international leadership, Asia’s cities are poised to be the catalysts driving regional and national climate change action.
Asia, the world’s most populous continent, is in the midst of a monumental rural-to-urban migration shift. By 2030, the percentage of Chinese, Indian and Indonesian citizens (three of the world’s four largest countries and 40 per cent of humanity) living in cities will reach 60 per cent, 40 per cent, and 69 per cent respectively. In wealthier nations such as Japan and South Korea, the proportion of urban dwellers will approach 90 per cent.
Given this massive demographic shift, individual Asian cities are positioned to exert increasing influence on policies affecting carbon emissions. Sub-national governments can fill leadership voids by setting more aggressive targets, implementing concrete GHG reduction mechanisms, and engaging other cities worldwide to promote capacity building and meaningful collaboration.
A prominent example of local action preceding national policy can be found in Japan. Over the past few decades, Japan has experimented with capping carbon emissions but its national strategy for emission reduction has relied largely on voluntary measures. The DPJ government recently called for a 25 per cent reduction in GHG emissions from 1990 levels by 2020 but no firm structure such as a carbon tax or emissions trading system has emerged to actualise such an ambitious goal.
Rather than wait for direction from the Diet, Tokyo city assumed leadership by pushing forth its own cap-and-trade program. Tokyo’s cap-and-trade initiative holds the distinction of being Asia’s first. It is also the world’s first and only urban cap-and-trade system. By targeting its industrial and commercial sectors, which are responsible for half of total emissions, Tokyo’s policy will be the key instrument used to achieve the city’s climate change goals of a 25 per cent reduction in GHG emissions from 2000 levels by 2020.
The impact of Tokyo’s policy will be substantial. Greater Tokyo is the world’s largest metropolitan area. Home to 35 million residents and a US$1.5 trillion economy, the Greater Tokyo Area more closely resembles a medium-sized European nation. In 2007, Tokyo’s CO2 emissions totaled 56 million tons, slightly less than that produced by Portugal. In addition to reducing its own carbon footprint, Tokyo’s pioneering cap-and-trade system retains potential to be scaled up to manage all of Japan, and even neighbouring Asian countries.
One country that could take cues from Tokyo is China. During its 11thFive Year Plan (2006-2010), China took serious steps to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon intensity. Issues persist regarding China’s measurable, reportable, verifiable (MRV) emission data and the lack of an overall GHG emission reduction target. China has addressed these problems with a framework for domestic carbon trading during in its most recent Five Year Plan.
Unlike Japan, China’s cities will lead the way on carbon trading and GHG reduction as a matter of deliberate design. Beijing will favour city-wide and regional carbon trading schemes that precede any national cap-and-trade regime. The central government has designated eight cities and five provinces as low carbon pilot zones. Each of the 13 cities and regions is responsible for crafting individual approaches to meet its low carbon goals by 2015. Tianjin, one of the low carbon cities, inaugurated China’s domestic carbon trading market with the first sales of carbon emission credits in 2010.
Just as China’s Special Economic Zones (SEZ) of the 1980s pushed forward national adoption of free market reforms, today’s low carbon pioneering cities and regions will stimulate future low carbon reforms in the world’s largest emitter.
Another factor enhancing the leadership role of Asia’s cities is international city-to-city engagement. Organisations such as the World Mayor’s Council on Climate Change, C40 Cities, and ICLEI (Local Governments for Sustainability) provide a framework for developing MRV emission standards, capacity building and idea exchange. These inter-city collaborations can work in parallel to activities channeled through the United Nations. For example, the Mexico City Pact, signed by 138 mayors in 2010, will establish an international climate change registry to share emission data and improve transparency. City leaders may achieve success where national leaders fail because they are less hindered by political, economic, or geostrategic competition.
The trend of cities exceeding their national carbon targets in Asia is increasingly widespread. Jakarta has announced its plan to cut emissions 30 per cent from 2009 levels by 2020. Taiwan’s three largest cities have all agreed to reduce emissions 60 per cent from 1990 levels by 2050. In India, where the national government has provided minimal leadership on carbon reduction, New Delhi has pledged to become a carbon neutral city by 2030. There is no question that Asia’s cities have assumed a leading role in shaping national climate change targets and policies. Ultimately, there must be a union of sub-national and national leadership in order to effectively transition to low carbon societies. The degree to which Asia’s metropolitan areas are able to impact regional and national climate change action will be a major factor in determining the success of the continent’s carbon emission future.
As climate change dialogue enters the mainstream, many of the world's nations, corporations, and individuals have set the goal to become carbon neutral. In the short term, directly reducing carbon emissions to zero is an impossible task. Thus, a key mechanism to achieve carbon neutrality is the use of carbon dioxide offsets. In this post, I want to briefly examine carbon offsets, their applicability to urban carbon neutrality, and the role they may play in Taiwan's low carbon city plans.
What is a Carbon Offset?
In theory, carbon offsets are a wonderfully simple concept.* Any emitter of carbon dioxide (a state, corporation, or individual) can "offset" his CO2 emissions by investing in a project that will reduce an equal amount of carbon dioxide. Thus the carbon emitter mitigates his CO2 emissions indirectly through a financial investment. Measured in tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), carbon offsets include investments in afforestation, renewable energy, and energy efficiency. Carbon offsets require accurate estimations of carbon emissions and often take place under cap-and-trade programs (such as the European Union's Emissions Trading System). Another key aspect of carbon offsets is the notion of "additionality." In order to effectively reduce CO2, carbon offsets must direct investment towards projects that would not have otherwise been carried out, thus it must be "additional."
While the idea of carbon offsets is straightforward, its implementation is complicated. There are several different standards of carbon offsets operating under a porous regulatory framework. Ensuring that a theoretical amount of carbon will not be emitted is an inherently difficult task. Planting 100 trees may reduce a designated amount CO2 when extrapolated over 20 years, but what happens if they are destroyed or harvested after 15? It is also difficult to prove additionality; there have been cases where carbon offsets are diverted towards projects already supported by other investment mechanisms.
Carbon offsets are playing an increasing role in the global climate change dialogue
At best, critics charge carbon offsets with being inefficient and misguided attempts to reduce global CO2 emissions. At worst, offsets represent fraudulent manipulation of customers good intentions. In 2007, The New York Times reported on the Vatican's ambitious carbon offset scheme, "The Vatican Climate Forest." By planting trees in a 37 acre tract of land in Hungary's Bukk National Park, The Vatican would become the world's first carbon neutral state. However, as revealed by The Christian Science Monitor, the project has been marred by scandal and presents a cautionary tale for those relying on carbon offsets as the lynchpin of a carbon neutrality strategy. Nearly four years after the Vatican's announcement, the future of the project remains in doubt, no trees have been planted, and no CO2 has been offset.
Carbon offset industry leaders refute these charges and distance themselves from those who would defraud or mislead customers. Increasing familiarity with the pros and cons of offsets will serve to strengthen consumer confidence over time. Standards are in regulatory oversight are also improving. The British Standards Institute (BSi) has released PAS 2060, a leading carbon neutrality benchmark system. PAS 2060 clearly delineates the appropriate role of carbon offsets in carbon neutrality plans and identifies standards for certification.
*For a more detailed explanation of carbon offsets, please refer to the World Resources Institute's "Bottom Line on Offsets"
Urban Carbon Neutrality
Despite their controversial nature, it is evident that the carbon offsets are growing at a rapid pace. Carbon offsets have been utilized by airlines, banks, and even media conglomerates as individuals and organizations seek to reduce their carbon footprints.
Carbon offsets are also being employed by municipal governments to foster low carbon or carbon neutral city development. Cities can achieve a carbon neutral status by improving energy efficiency, developing higher amounts of renewable energy, and investing in carbon offsets. San Francisco and Salt Lake Cityhave developed offset projects to mitigate emissions from municipal air travel. To leverage support for its offset initiative, San Francisco also inaugurated the Climate Passport program. Passengers at San Francisco Airport can offset their CO2 emissions by directing money toward forest conservation in Mendicino and the San Francisco Carbon Fund. While air travel has been a popular venue for carbon offsets, other cities have implemented a more tangible approach. In 2009, the city of Philadelphia created Erase Your Trace. The initiative allows Philadelphians to calculate their personal CO2 emissions and make a corresponding donation to a local non-profit conservancy. The money is then invested in planting trees across Philly's neighborhoods, keeping the offset local.
Masdar: The world's first carbon neutral city? (photo by Simon)
In many urban low carbon strategies, offsets serve a supplementary role. While other direct avenues of carbon reduction undergo planning, offsets can immediately reduce a city's carbon footprint. In Sydney, the city has shifted resources from carbon offsets to local renewable energy deployment. Once Sydney formulated its own low carbon investment plan, carbon offsets were rebalanced and reduced to reflect its changing priorities. Moreover, carbon offsets can be utilized to promote future low carbon city development. Construction costs for the Masdar Ecocity project in Abu Dhabi are partly funded by the sale of carbon offsets through the Kyoto Protocol.
However, widespread adoption of carbon offsets has been slow. The EPA has yet to enact a carbon trading scheme or formally endorse any particular carbon offset standard. Jules Chuang, East Asia Principal for South Pole Carbon Management, is optimistic about prospects for carbon offsets in Taiwan but recognizes current barriers. As Mr. Chuang relates, "With both supply and demand unclear, what is needed is a clearer game plan." Ambiguous signals have precluded offsets from becoming a key strategy of Taiwan's low carbon city development. There also exists a general distrust amongst Taiwanese regarding the prudence of investing in CO2 reduction projects overseas.
Taiwan's carbon offset market is growing slowly (photo by David Reid)
Despite its slow start, the carbon offset market in Taiwan is poised to take off. Taiwan has stated a vague goal of becoming a low carbon country by 2020. Achieving a significant reduction in Taiwan's carbon footprint in less than ten years will necessitate the use of carbon offsets. In the near term, Taiwan's carbon offset market needs explicit direction from the government. As Taiwan waits for cap-and-trade legislation to clear its legislative hurdles, the EPA could formally adopt one or several existing carbon offset standards.
EPA support for the carbon offset market would catalyze local and regional initiatives. As a part of Taiwan's low carbon communities plan, several municipal governments are in the process of applying for EPA funding for low-carbon projects. As in Sydney, Taiwanese cities could use offsets as a bridge to carbon neutrality. Moreover, Taiwanese cities should explore strategies to keep offsets reinvested in local communities. Local carbon offsets projects would familiarize Taiwan's public with the concept of offsetting and slowly build acceptance for overseas investment.
After a break, Taiwan Sustainable Cities is back with a roundup of Taiwan's recent energy and environment news.
Energy
In the wake of Japan's nuclear crisis, fears about disaster mitigation and nuclear power have been renewed in Taiwan. Nuclear energy plays an important role in Taiwan's energy production and environmental discourse. Taiwan currently has three nuclear power plants that provide roughly 20% of the nation's electricity, but a recent survey indicated that only 35.4% of respondents supported nuclear power. Authorities from Taiwan's Atomic Energy Council (AEC) have attempted to alleviate public concern regarding the safety of Taiwan's reactors. However, the Taiwanese legislature has suspended construction of Taiwan's Lungmen nuclear power plant. Subject to several delays, Taiwan's controversial 4th nuclear plant had been recently rescheduled for a 2012 opening. Opposition members have demanded that the new plant be able to withstand a 9.0 magnitude quake (Taiwan's current nuclear facilities are estimated to be able to endure 6.0-7.0 seismic activity). Responding to the crisis, Taiwan Power Company has issued a statement that it will seek to reduce power supplied from nuclear sources in favor of alternative energy.
Renewed concern over nuclear energy
Taiwan's energy demand continues to soar on the back of the economic recovery. Encouragingly, Taiwan's energy efficiency has also experienced significant gains. The Bureau of Energy reported that Taiwan's energy efficiency increased by 4% in 2010, doubling the government's annual goal of 2% from 2008-2015. The Taiwanese government recently upset solar investors by reducing the solar feed-in tariff by 30%. The government cited falling solar PV equipment costs for the reduction but subsequently announced increases for feed-in tariffs on off-shore and on-shore wind energy by 30% and 10% respectively. And for those who missed it, Renewable Energy World offers an excellent article on Taiwan's transition to sustainable energy.
Water
The Hushan Reservoir in Yunlin County is scheduled for a 2014 opening. As an article in Taiwan Today notes, Hushan has reignited the debate over systematic issues with Taiwan's water usage and policy. The buildout of Hushan and other large reservoirs in Taiwan have been criticized by environmental groups for damaging the ecosystem in order to serve the water needs of large industry. Reservoirs in Taiwan have been plagued by high silt levels, reducing their efficiency. The construction of dams and reservoirs have also done little to improve issues such as water leakage and high rates of water consumption.
The central government is maintaining caution about increased cross-strait water dependency. Jinmen County officials have suggested the notion of importing water from China to meet the island's needs. Ironically, it is an anticipated influx of Chinese tourists that would precipitate the demand for imported water. Although a Jinmen-Mainland water connection would represent a very small exchange, the issue highlights the sensitivity of cross-strait energy-water cooperation.
Carbon Emissions
As the legislature continues debate on a cap and trade policy, Taiwan witnessed its first carbon trading transaction in February 2011. The government is also considering other ways to reduce Taiwan's carbon footprint. The EPA announced its plans to implement a framework to promote carbon neutrality. A "carbon neutrality management platform" will create a public registry of carbon neutral actions and layout guidelines for corporations and private citizens to reduce their CO2 emissions. On Arbor Day, President Ma led a symbolic afforestation effort as 30,000 trees were planted around the island. Taiwan is over 1/3 of the way towards achieving its goal of planting 60,000 hectares of forest by 2018, sequestering 300,000 tons of CO2 each year. Despite recent government action, a January 2011 survey conducted by the Taiwan Institute for Sustainable Energy revealed that the majority of respondents believed the Taiwanese leadership was not doing enough to prevent climate change. 61% of those surveyed supported a national carbon tax and 52.7% approved of electricity rate hikes to increase the amount of renewable energy.
The new Hsiangshan visitor center at Sun Moon Lake opened in February 2011. The winner of the Landform Series competition, the structure utilizes a large green-roof to blend in with its natural surroundings. On the heels of its "Asian Green Cities Index," Siemens Taiwan announced the launch of a new smart building model. The initiative plans to unite smart grid technology, renewable energy, and supply-side energy management to integrate green buildings and smart cities.
International Engagement
Despite Taiwan's murky political status, there are still 23 countries with which Taiwan maintains formal diplomatic relations. President Fernando Lugo of Paraguay recently made a state visit and encouraged Taiwanese investment in energy-intensive industries. Tuvalu, a Polynesian island nation of less than 11,000 residents, has also remained a Taiwanese ally since 1979. On a recent visit, President Ma announced a program to deploy Taiwanese solar energy and LED technology to improve the island's rural electrification. In the past, Taiwan implemented a similar program with fellow ally Burkina Faso.
In this blog, I have stated that Taichung's efforts to become an eco-city are an essential component of its future identity. The title of Taiwan's greenest city is a valuable asset to attract residents, investment, and the clean energy industries that Taiwan's central government will aggressively promote in the next decade. While Taichung contemplates its steps towards green development, Taiwan's other cities are not idly standing by.
Kaohsiung, Taiwan's second largest city, has emerged as both a domestic and international example of eco-city development. Due to its strategic location during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan, Kaohsiung was targeted as a center of industry in the mid-20th century. In the post-WWII era, Kaohsiung was the industrial engine fueling the "Taiwan Miracle." By the 1990s, Kaohsiung had over 6000 factories and rapid industrialization/urbanization had exacted a heavy toll on its citizenry. Kaohsiung's cancer rates soared, its rivers were pronounced "dead,"and landfills blighted the urban landscape.
Since reaching the peak of its polluted image in the late 20th century, Kaohsiung has undergone a remarkable transformation in a short period of time. In this post, I want to introduce Kaohsiung's efforts on several fronts that make it an unlikely eco-city leader of Taiwan.
A City on the Rise
This past December, I attended the first U.S.-Taiwan Clean Energy Forum in Kaohsiung, hosted by the American Institute in Taiwan and the Kaohsiung City government. As the host city, Kaohsiung's efforts to showcase its transition to a low-carbon and environmentally sustainable metropolis were displayed front and center. The following video clip from National Geographic's Megacities TV program introduces some of the measures Kaohsiung has adopted in changing its status from rampant polluter to dedicated reformer:
Kaohsiung's transformation is reflected in its ascent up the Mercer quality of living rankings. In a recent Mercer survey, Kaohsiung broke into the top 100 cities worldwide for quality of living and achieved 13th place in Asia. Kaohsiung also earned 13th place in Asia under Mercer's eco-city category, beating out Taipei for #1 in Taiwan. Commonwealth Magazine's 2009 profile of Kaohsiung, From Soot and Smoke to the Sweet Life, pronounced the city first in Taiwan in environmental protection.
Air Pollution and Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Kaohsiung's reliance on heavy industry led the city to become home to some of Taiwan's worst air quality. In addition to grey skies resembling those of Beijing, Kaohsiung emerged as not only the highest per capita CO2 emitter out of Taiwan's large cities, but also one of the world's worst. As of 2005, Kaohsiung emitted over 4x as much CO2 per person than Taipei, and over twice the Taiwan national average.
Kaohsiung's air quality has shown marked improvement in recent years. This past summer, Kaohsiung was the first Taiwanese city to initiate a trial run of the EPA's air pollution quota control system. Kaohsiung City's latest Pollution Standard Index (PSI) hit a record low, more than three times less than its figure when measurements first began in 1994.
Reducing Kaohsiung's high-level of CO2 emissions has proven a more complex task than cleaning up its skies. To curb its high levels of per capita CO2 emissions, Kaohsiung has first laid out a series of ambitious reduction goals. The city government aims to reduce CO2 emissions to 30% below 2005 levels by 2020, 50% by 2030, and 80% by 2050. In order to achieve the near term CO2 reduction goal by 2020, the government is leaning heavily on clean technology deployment to cover 50% of its target. Other major cuts will come through the residential and commercial sector (15%), industry (12%), and there is still a 10% shortfall yet to be accounted for.
China Steel Corporation
Heavy industry comprises 68% of Kaohsiung's CO2 emissions, dwarfing emissions from the next closest source (commercial/residential sector at 23%). Beginning in 2009, Kaohsiung has levied a carbon tax on heavy industry. All corporations emitting over 10,000 tons of CO2 per annum are subject to the tax, which is expected to generate NT $2.8 billion each year for the city coffers.
Responding to the government's policies and their own economic incentives, Kaohsiung's industrial heavyweights have been actively cutting their emissions. China Steel Corporation (CSC), Taiwan's largest steel producer, is alone responsible for over 40% of Kaohsiung City's CO2 emissions. CSC has slashed CO2 emissions by 20% by upgrading its technology and efficiency. Through the use of steam-electric cogeneration, CSC's Kaohsiung plant provides 2/3 of the electricity needed to run its operations. CSC has also been able to sell surplus steam to its industrial neighbors. Steam sales earned CSC $NT 600 million in 2006 while reducing the fuel needs for adjacent petroleum and chemical plants.
Energy
Due to the municipality's high rate of sunshine, Kaohsiung is ripe for the development of solar energy. In February 2010, Asia's largest high-concentration photovoltaic (HCPV) solar power plant began operation in Lujhu, Greater Kaohsiung. Built with a US $8.34 million investment from the Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, the 1 MW facility has the potential to be scaled up to 10 MW. In March 2010, Suntech announced that it will build a 4.7 MW solar plant in Young'an, Greater Kaohsiung. The solar power facility will be Taiwan's largest and double Taiwan's installed solar capacity to nearly 10 MW. Kaohsiung also leads Taiwan in the installation of solar water heaters; combined central and local government subsidies on solar water heaters add up to NT $7500.
In a symbolic form of energy generation, Kaohsiung has harnessed methane gas from a former landfillunderneath the Metropolitan Park to supply electricity to 4,600 households. Beginning operation in 2000, the Hsichingpu methane plant reduces 5,000 tons of greenhouse gas emissions each year and is expected to generate electricity for a 20 year life span.
141 panels comprise Asia's largest HCPV facility
In addition to promoting higher amounts of clean energy installed capacity, Kaohsiung also aims to become a manufacturer, exporter, and investment hub for clean energy and technology. Kaohsiung government agencies will invest over NT $37 billion in a "Green Energy Industry Plan," hoping to spur the city's green energy industrial value to NT$1.158 trillion by 2015. The Kaohsiung Science Park has been tagged as a "green energy cluster" and designated for promoting LED, biotech, telecom, and solar enterprises. Kaohsiung also plans to build a solar energy industry zone as part of a major land reclamation project along the harbor. The strategic location adjacent to Kaohsiung's port will foster the city's burgeoning solar manufacturing industry.
Transportation
One of the main pillars of Kaohsiung's green development strategy has been a reformation of its transportation system. In 2006, the city achieved a paltry 4.3% share for public transportation usage. Motorbikes are ubiquitous; in a country where there is nearly one motorbike for every two people, Kaohsiung has 766 motorbikes for every 1000 city residents. In order to combat its low rate of public transportation use, the government has employed a "give first, take later" strategy. The city has engaged in a comprehensive effort to deliver new pubic transportation options while upgrading and enhancing the efficiency of existing services. Once a culture of public transportation ridership is firmly established, the government will begin to instill policies to discourage private transportation.
The aspect of Kaohsiung's transportation upgrade that has drawn the most attention has been its MRT system. Opening in March 2008, the Kaohsiung MRT is Taiwan's second urban subway system. The KMRT is currently comprised of 2 lines running along a horizontal-vertical axis, encompassing 36 stations and 42.7 km of track. The results of the KMRT have been a mixed bag: the ultra-modern system is steadily losing money as ridership lags far behind expectations. Officials had predicted that ridership would reach nearly 560,000 passengers per day by the end of 2010, a far cry from this year's actual figure of 127,000. The KMRT needs approximately 380,000 riders per day to become profitable. Despite poor initial ridership figures, the city government is doubling down on the MRT and pressing ahead with plans to expand light rail connections to the existing system.
At its current rate of approximately 10% annual growth, KMRT ridership would exceed its profitability threshold early in the next decade
Drawing far less attention than the MRT system have been significant efforts to improve the city bus system. Kaohsiung has expanded access by adding hundreds of busses to the road, doubling MRT shuttle bus connectivity, and acquiring 100 low-floor busses for wheelchair passengers. Kaohsiung has also promoted alternative fuels as a means to improve fuel efficiency in the city's municipal fleet. Kaohsiung is the second city (after Kyoto, Japan) to require its entire public bus fleet to be use a biofuel-gasoline blend. In 2006, the Kaohsiung City government unveiled a test project to convert all of its garbage trucks to run on biodiesel. Kaohsiung has also released six hydrogen busses, a number that the city looks to increase in the near future.
To get citizens out of their cars and off their motorbikes, Kaohsiung has instituted Taiwan's first urban bike rental program. The government's City Public Bike (C-Bike) program includes 4,500 bikes at 50 rental locations. Bike rentals through the program aren't free, but the government offers subsidies to encourage citizens to utilize the city's 150+ km of bike paths (first in Taiwan). Kaohsiung's efforts have led CNN to name it the third most bike friendly city in Asia. For the majority of citizens who will continue to rely on private transportation, the city has offered generous incentives for cleaner vehicles. The Kaohsiung government is offering a NT $25,000 subsidy to buy electric motorbikes and a NT $10,000 subsidy for the purchase of LPG vehicles. The financial incentives are aimed at removing an estimated 300,000 old motorbikes from the road and are in addition to existing central government subsidies.
In October 2010, the city government released the Greater Kaohsiung Transport Policy White Paper. The document highlights several measures to expand the future scope and efficacy of the city's public transportation system. The city will deploy more hydrogen busses, solar powered bus stops and EV charging stations. Accompanying future MRT expansion, more effort will be made to integrate the city's MRT, LRT, BRT and shuttle bus systems. Kaohsiung's efforts to overhaul its public transportation system are already demonstrating results. According to the Kaohsiung City Transportation Bureau, the city has improved its public transportation share to 10.8% in 2010, and its monthly record high (12.5%) is approaching the government's' short-term goal of 15% usage. It is clear that the government's efforts to improve Kaohsiung's transportation system are gaining traction: in a July 2010 survey, 82% of Kaohsiung residents reported satisfaction with the city's overall transportation infrastructure.
Green Buildings
Not to be outdone by Taiwan's first zero-carbon building in Tainan and the space-age Taiwan Towerplanned in Taichung, Kaohsiung can also point to its own signature green building: the World Games Stadium. The 55,000 seat stadium opened in 2009. Over 8,800 solar panels on the roof can supply up to 75% of the building's power needs during operation. When the stadium is empty, the solar power generated is fed into the grid and is sufficient to power 80% of the surrounding neighborhood. The stadium was designed by Japanese architect Toyo Ito (who is also commissioned with the design of the Taichung Metropolitan Opera House).
Emergent Architect's Kaohsiung Pop Music Center Design
Kaohsiung also has other groundbreaking green building projects in the works. Sun and Associates have proposed an enormous wave-shaped multi-use cruise ship terminal for Kaohsiung's port. The roof of the structure will be lined entirely with solar panels and is adjacent to a large park. Further developing futuristic plans for Kaohsiung's port is Emergent Architect's proposal for the Kaohsiung Pop Music Center. The music center would be comprised of two buildings, one above and one below ground. The music center would contain a 12,000 seat amphitheater and its outer walls, or "skin," would be lined with thin-film solar technology.
Waste and Water
Far from the sexiest topic in city planning, sewage treatment is nonetheless an essential component of a modern city. In many ways, the development and modernization of Kaohsiung's sewage system has paralleled the city's environmental rise. Kaohsiung's sewage systems began their planning stages in the 1970s. From 1979 to 2001, the city government invested upwards of NT $12 billion in sewage treatment infrastructure. Sewage connectivity has improved rapidly: in 1995, only 1.1% of Kaohsiung households were connected to the municipal sewage system. As of November 2010, this number has increased to over 61% and is projected to reach 90% by 2016.
Water resources are another crucial but often overlooked aspect of a city. The southern regions of Taiwan receive 90% of their annual rainfall during the rainy season and only 10% over the rest of the year. Climate change is only likely to worsen this ratio. In recent years, Kaohsiung has acted to improve the quality of the city's tap water and taken steps to diversify its water sources. Kaohsiung has a water demand of 1.55 million tons per day with no central reservoir to rely upon. As a result, the city has turned to water recycling as a means to improve its water security. Kaohsiung's first industrial wastewater reclamation plant will be opened in the Nanzih Export Processing Zone. The plant will cost NT $100 million and will serve the water hungry high-tech companies in the Nanzih District. The plant will start operation in January 2011, producing 1,800 tons of water per day. The plant is scheduled to be expanded to a capacity of 100,000 tons of water per day, an upgrade that will generate up to NT $10 billion in profits.
Water recycling is also of central importance to Kaohsiung's industrial sector. Despite boasting a water recycling rate of 97.6%, China Steel's Kaohsiung plant still requires 165,000 tons of water each day (55% of the entire city's industrial water needs). CSC has installed an industrial wastewater recycling plant that will reuse up to 13,500 additional tons of water each day.
In the future, the city of Kaohsiung may need to expand its water resource options beyond recycling. Seawater desalinization is far more expensive than wastewater treatment, but offers additional security in times of water scarcity. The city government has discussed the construction of a seawater desalinization plant that could produce 50,000-200,000 tons of water per day.
Urban Regeneration and Green Space
One of the most important components to Kaohsiung's rebirth was the cleanup and transformation of the Love River. Cutting through the heart of the city, the Love River became a primary runoff destination for Kaohsiung's pollution. Since 1979, the city government has been instrumental in the Love River's rejuvenation by improving sewage connectivity and treatment, reforestation, and adding bike paths and public art spaces along the riverbanks. Once entirely devoid of marine life, the river now boasts over 50 aquatic species. The Love River has even become a showcase for the city's commitment to renewable energy. The Kaohsiung City government launched 5 solar powered tour boats in September 2010 to replace diesel fuel models and will incorporate 10 more solar boats by 2012. Following the success of the Love River's restoration, the government has also taken action to clean up and revitalize the city's two other major waterways, the Cianjhen River and Houjin Creek.
Kaohsiung's Love River
A major priority of recent Kaohsiung government administrations has been the expansion of green space. At Kaohsiung's industrialized nadir, green space accounted for only 5% of the city's area (nearly 3x less than Taipei on a per capita basis). Kaohsiung now provides its citizens with over 750 hectares of parks and fields, double Taipei's per capita rate. Unique amongst Kaohsiung's green space is its "wetland ecological corridor." Kaohsiung contains eight wetlands that form a semi-connected pathway running from north to south through the city. Kaohsiung Mayor Chen Chu signed a declaration to preserve the cities wetlands in 2007. The 50 million square meters of wetland area have witnessed the return of many bird species and help absorb storm-water runoff and sequester CO2. Furthermore, the accesibility of the wetland parks bestow them with the important role of incubating environmental education and awareness for future generations.
Similarly to the urban development projects in London and Hamburg mentioned in a previous post, the Kaohsiung City government envisions a revitalized old port area as crucial to the city's rejuvenation. The city solicited urban design ideas through its "Ideas for Action" competition (open to those aged 40 and younger), spurring innovative eco-city projects focused on sustainable urban development. However, in contrast to the urban development corporation model, the city has employed a bottom-up approach to incentivize urban redevelopment and green space. Commonwealth Magazine reports that,
"the city instituted the "Vacant Land Beautification Project," which in effect stated, "The city government will impose heavy fines on owners of vacant land that falls into disrepair," Chen says. To encourage the greening of Kaohsiung, the city offered reductions or exemptions on property taxes as well as an increase on permitted plot ratios to landowners that agreed to beautify their vacant land. In three years the city succeeded in the greening of 230 hectares of previously disused land, greatly increasing the area of green space and parkland in the city."
The success of the government in this approach is testament to the fact that proper incentives can be just as effective as centralized planning in urban beautification and redevelopment.
Additional Efforts
Food:
To reduce demand-side pressure on CO2 emissions, the Kaohsiung government has encouraged citizens to adopt a vegetarian diet 1 day each week. Meat consumption has been identified as a significant cause of CO2 emissions; 1 kg of beef production is estimated to be equivalent to a 160 mile drive in a car. Many schools and universities in Kaohsiung have complied by offering exclusively vegetarian cafeteria choices one day a week, while 33 schools have opted for 2 days each week.
Climate Change:
Kaohsiung has made strenuous efforts to abide by the UN's +2 degrees C goal but also accepts that some degree of climate change is inevitable. To combat climate change's impact on the city, the Kaohsiung government city has established a climate change adaptation fund.
Low-Carbon Communities:
The Kaohsiung government is pursuing a strategy of designated "eco-model" zones to serve as pilot projects for low-carbon retrofitting. During his presentation at the Clean Energy Forum, Dr. Mu-sheng Lee (the Director General of the Kaohsiung Environmental Protection Bureau) noted Kaohsiung's planning draws inspiration from the cradle to cradle (C2C) design concept and utilizes case studies of Stockholm's Hammarby model, New York City's PlaNYC, and Kitakyushu, Japan's ecotown. The designated zones will be evaluated on their efficacy across several sectors including electricity management, recycling, and zero carbon transportation. The eco-model zones encompass both industrial and residential areas and their successful measures are expected be scaled up to the entire city.
International Engagement:
Kaohsiung has been a willing participant in the international dialogue on sustainable cities. Kaohsiung became the first Taiwanese member of the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI)in 2005 (Taipei and Taichung have since joined). Comprised of over 1200 local government members focused on sustainable development and environmental protection, ICLEI provides an international framework for urban innovation and cooperation. Kaohsiung recently participated in ICLEI's 2010 Resilient Cities Congress in Bonn, Germany and has lobbied for the creation of a permanent ICLEI office in Kaohsiung.
Future Challenges
Despite the admirable progress of Kaohsiung, its goal of becoming an eco-city is far from realized. Kaohsiung City is still Taiwan's heaviest carbon polluter by a wide margin: the city is responsible for roughly 1/3 of Taiwan's total emissions. In order to significantly reduce CO2 emissions, Kaohsiung will have to undergo a painful diversification of its economy away from its traditional heavy industrial base. Such a shift may already be underway as a byproduct of the global financial crisis. Kaohsiung's export-oriented economy took a dramatic hit in 2009 and some loss of its industrial prowess may not return to pre-crisis levels. Increased competition from Chinese ports and local emphasis on environmental quality will naturally erode support for heavy industry. Kaohsiung Mayor Chen has identified clean technology and tourism as sectors to replace lost industrial revenue for the city, but there will be growing pains.
Another major challenge will be the success of the municipality's public transportation system. The Kaohsiung MRT is years away from profitability, and will lean heavily on government subsidies for the foreseeable future. The KMRT is not the only transportation initiative experiencing financial difficulties: the C-Bike program lost NT $500,000 a month in 2009. Statistics showed that bike rental rates were 7x higher on weekends, indicating that the C-Bike rentals have been utilized for leisure rather than a viable transportation alternative for commuters. While still in the first phase of adding options for residents, the government will have to more aggressively disincentize the use of private transporation, especially scooters, a move that is unlikely to be popular.
There is also the new challenge of the Kaohsiung City and Kaohsiung County merger. In Taiwan's Municipal Upgrades, Commonwealth Magazine observes:
"the new municipality will encompass an area running from sea level to 3,000 meters up in the mountains, inhabited by ethnic Han Chinese, Hakkas and several indigenous groups – a diverse and complex jurisdiction running the gamut from bustling urban downtown Kaohsiung to aboriginal villages such as Namasia (formerly Sanmin Township). The bureaucratic organization of Kaohsiung City is far bigger than that of Kaohsiung County, and its developmental model has been urbanization. Now it has suddenly acquired a vast agricultural hinterland, so the handling of the extreme disparities between the two following the merger of city and county can be expected to be fraught with difficulties."
The new Greater Kaohsiung government will be challenged to expand MRT and shuttle bus service into the former county, ensure equal environmental safeguards, and expand its eco-city vision to encompass a much larger area.
Conclusion
It is undeniable that Kaohsiung's transition to a path of sustainable development has reinvented the city. In one of the most poignant moments of the Megacities: Kaohsiung video, a Kaohsiung resident states:
"The most crucial significance of Kaohsiung's transformation is that Kaohsiung's citizens have changed their minds greatly. In the past, nobody was willing to say that they were from Kaohsiung. Now the word Kaohsiung has new meaning, we all think that is the most amazing change of the city, that is to proclaim we are Kaohsiung people."
The transformation of Kaohsiung into a healthier, wealthier, and more environmentally stable metropolis is certainly something for its past and present residents to be proud of. Additionally, Kaohsiung's reinvention and the mayor's emphasis on clean technology will be a vehicle to attract Taiwan's future innovators and creators. Kaohsiung's series of initiatives are sure to encounter difficulties but the city leadership has laid out a bold vision of the future: Kaohsiung will be an international paragon of eco-city development.
